Chapter 9 : Conflict Management Processes

Summary from Textbook:

Conflict can be defined as the interaction of interdependent people who perceive opposition of goals, aims and values, and who see the other party as potentially interfering with the realization of these goals. Three characteristics of conflict are thus seen: incompatible goals of each person, interdependence of each person on another, and interaction between people involved.
There are several levels of organizational conflict: interpersonal conflict- between individuals, intergroup conflict- between different groups, and interorganizational conflict- between two or more organizations.

As conflicts develop and are resolved, 5 phases are seen:

• Latent conflict- in which the situation where conditions for conflict arises


• Perceived conflict- when either party believes the other is wrong


• Felt conflict- formulation of strategies and solutions of conflict


• Manifest conflict- resolving conflict


• Conflict aftermath- short and long term consequences

There are several conflict management styles:

• Avoidance- ignoring needs of both parties


• Accommodating- putting others’ needs before yours


• Competition- insisting on your needs


• Compromise- middle ground of both parties’ needs


• Collaborative- finding a solution that satisfies both parties’ needs fully

A second strategy of dealing with conflict is through bargaining or negotiation. It is often a formal activity in which parties can settle intergroup or interorganizational conflicts. Individuals usually represent the parties involved.

There are two types of bargaining that differ in goals, issues, communicative processes and outcomes:

• Distributive bargaining- focusing on maximizing own gains and minimizing losses


• Integrative bargaining- maximizing gains and benefits for both parties

A third strategy for dealing with conflict is the third-party conflict resolution. This happens when it is impossible to resolve the conflict using the first two strategies. These third parties are usually known as mediators or arbitrators. Communication is often very important to develop a solution, and there are various tactics used: directive- mediator initiating recommendations, non-directive- mediators attempt to secure information and clarify misunderstandings, procedural- mediator establishes agenda and protocol, reflexive- mediator regulating tone of interaction.

There are several factors that influence the conflict management:

• Personal factors- factors such as gender, personality, and the way an individual frames a conflict


• Relational factors- relationships between conflict parties and how it influences the interaction through which conflict is managed


• Cultural factors- aspects of organizational, national and ethnic culture that may influence conflict management

Different approaches look at conflict differently, and consider conflict management in different ways:

• Classical- conflict viewed as breakdown of communication, and is managed by third parties


• Human relations- conflict viewed negatively, and parties are encouraged to avoid conflicts or to reach a compromise


• Human resources- conflict viewed as a means for growth and development, and parties are encouraged to collaborate on solutions to satisfy everyone


• Systems- conflict viewed as cycles of activities that escalate or de-escalate.


• Cultural- conflict viewed as coming from difference in metaphors and value systems of individuals and groups


• Critical- conflicts viewed as imbalance of power

This chapter is also important, as it explains how conflicts can be resolved. Conflicts are not only seen in organizations, but also in our everyday life. Negotiation is not only on a relatively small scale between organizations or groups within it, but can be used on a large scale, for example between countries, or even the smallest scale, such as bargaining between a buyer and seller at the marketplace.

Reference:

Miller, K 2009, Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, 6^th edition, Belmont, CA, Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Week 9 Tutorial

This week’s tutorial mainly focused on discussing a case study regarding a church management team looking for a pastor for their church. From this discussion, what I learnt is that an interview is not mainly about you, but the organization. In an interview, we should always connect ourselves with the organization, their agenda and their goal. As an interviewee, we should always address the organization and show them how we could benefit them and help them in achieving their goals. I realized from this discussion that qualifications are not the most important element when it comes to a job interview or job hunting in general. Instead, it is the way an individual presents themselves, in other words, the person with the best performance during an interview will most likely get the job compared to others who have pages of qualifications but failed in presenting themselves to the organization. Besides, there are a few things we should consider before going for an interview. Firstly, we should always do research on the organization’s background, agenda and goals, and also the role/position we are applying for. This is to prepare us for any impromptu questions or tasks from the interviewer and also this will help us in showing the interviewer how much we understand and know about them. This can be related to the Socialization process.

Chapter 8 : Decision-Making Processes

Summary from Textbook:

Decision making is important in any organization, and may vary in their levels of effectiveness. It is a rational and logical process, and normally consists of several steps: formulation, concept development, detailing, evaluation and implementation.

Another way of solving problems is the comparison of the problem to other problems faced in the past by the superior, and based on those experiences; find a similar way of solving the problem. This kind of decision-making is called analogical.

Occasionally, by putting all of the problems, and likely solutions together, an optimal decision may arise through coincidence, but this method is used rarely, as it is seen as a last resort.

Often, decision-making processes can be carried out within small groups in the organization. Occasionally, one may see this happening through 4 simple processes: orientation phase where members get to know each other, conflict phase where possible solutions to the problem are presented, emergence phase where a general consensus is reached, and the reinforcement phase where the decision is finalized. Sometimes, a conclusion may be reached after the problem has been broken down into its root parts, and resolving them one at a time. As a result, it can be concluded that most decision making processes within a small group is rarely linear and rational.

One of the negative consequences of this group decision making process can be referred to as groupthink. This consequence results in several negative stereotyping of the group:

• Illusion of invulnerability- the belief that nothing can go wrong



• Illusion of morality- belief that virtues of the group is always right



• Stereotyping- thinking that others, outside their group, think that the views of the group is wrong



• Self-censorship- opinions differing from the majority opinion is silenced



• Illusion of unanimity- agreement with the group while keeping own thoughts hidden



• Direct pressure on dissidents- the force that makes members behave and think in similar ways



• Reliance on self-appointed guards- protection of group from external influences

To reduce consequences like this, Randy Hirokawa and Dennis Gouran proposed a theory called the functional theory of group decision making that followed several ways of thinking:

• The group should have a correct understanding of the issues to be resolved



• The group should determine the minimal characteristics required in order for any alternative to be acceptable



• The group should identify a relevant and realistic set of alternatives



• The group should carefully examine the alternatives in relation to each previously agreed-upon required characteristic



• The group should select the alternative that is most likely to have the desired characteristics
  
  

There are two theories that explain why participation in decision making processes should produce valuable organizational outcomes. A wide range of attitudinal, cognitive and behavioural effects of participation have been considered, and it was seen that there was significant effects on job satisfaction and performance.

The Affective Model is based on the work of human relation theorists, and this model proposed that participation in decision making is an organizational practice that would help satisfy employee’s self-esteem and self-actualization needs, thus resulting in job satisfaction.
The Cognitive Model is based on the human resources approach, and proposes that the participation will improve the quality of the flow of information, and individuals involved will be able to better implement the relevant decisions in the future, thus improving productivity.

Participation in decision making can be seen in organizations through several ways ranging from casual conversations to formal representative systems and employee ownership. These programs varied in terms of type of participation, content of decision making and locus of participation. This saw the enhancement of the effectiveness of the organization through employee input and influence.

A participative ideal for organizations is known as the workplace democracy that realizes the standards for a democratic society in the workplace.

There are several approaches that consider the decision making process differently:

• Classical- seen as a rational and logical process



• Human relations- participation is seen as an avenue for satisfying workers’ higher-order needs



• Human resource- a venue for eliciting information and ensuring effective implementation of organizational decisions



• Systems- complex process involving multiple and varied stages



• Cultural- set of practices that reflects and constitutes organizational values and assumptions



• Critical- process in which management can exert control over employees

This chapter is important to me, as it highlights the importance of the process of decision making, within the organization as a group, or as individuals. It also tells us that everyone’s opinions should be respected, and no one should believe that their group is never wrong.

This chapter is important to me, as it highlights the importance of the process of decision making, within the organization as a group, or as individuals. It also tells us that everyone’s opinions should be respected, and no one should believe that their group is never wrong.

Reference:

Miller, K 2009, Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, 6^th edition, Belmont, CA, Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Week8 Tutorial

In this week’s tutorial, my group members and I were given a chance in participating in a teamwork exercise where we were required to build a structure using just a strip of brown tape, a string, a few spaghetti sticks and a marshmallow. The group who build the tallest structure provided placing the marshmallow on the top of the structure without falling apart wins. The purpose of this group exercise is to allow us to experience and have a better understanding towards the previous chapter that is Cultural Approaches. My group members and I are all from different countries thus we have varying cultural backgrounds. As a group with a multicultural background, we started off the exercise by discussing the best way in carrying out the task. Every member was assigned to a task individually according to his or her capability and this demonstrated the Machine Metaphor theory in Chapter One where everyone has a specific task and they are replaceable. This was the initial thought during the early progress while completing the task, but after further discussion, we concluded that this was not a Machine Metaphor. This is because we were open to changes, and we were able to adapt to any changes, provided that every group member has a say in the decision making process when we voice out our individual opinions in regarding the best ways in completing the task. Thus we concluded it wasn’t the Machine Metaphor theory in practice.

Chapter 7 : Socialization Processes

Summary from Textbook:

Three approaches are looked at when the processes, of which individuals and organizations adapt to each other, are looked at. These are:

• Assimilation- the ongoing behavioural and cognitive processes by which individuals join, become integrated into, and exit organizations


• Socialization- the adaptation of individuals through formal and informal socialization processes


• Individualization- the changing of aspects of the organization to better suit the needs, abilities or desires of the employee

There are several phases of socialization, as adaptation of the employee to the organization is not immediately:

• Anticipatory socialization- the processes that occur before the individual enters the organization


• Encounter- when the employee first encounters life on the job


• Metamorphosis- when the employee is fully accepted in the organization

It was suggested that there are several processes that an individual must undergo when entering the organization:

• Developing a familiarity with others


• Acculturating- learning the culture of the organization


• Feeling recognized by others


• Becoming involved in the organization


• Developing job competency


• Role negotiation

There are several communication processes during socialization, and one of them is the employment interview. This is most commonly used due to several reasons:

• The interview as a recruiting and screening tool- this serves to act as a way of gathering information on behalf of the organization by the interviewer on the interviewee


• The interview as an information-gathering tool- the interviewee also views the interview as a way to gather information about his future work place


• The interview as a tool for socialization- it serves as a tool to ease a newcomer’s adaptation to the organization once he is accepted

The second communication process is the newcomer information-seeking tactic. This is done through several ways: overt questioning, indirect questioning, third party information source, testing limits, disguising information, observation and surveillance.

The final communication process is the role-development process. This is done through several interrelated phases:

• Role-taking phase- the phase in which talents and motivations of the member is discovered by the superior through iterative testing sequences


• Role-making phase- negotiations about the roles required of by the member between both superior and member


• Role-routinization phase- where both roles and expected behaviours on both sides are understood by each other

Although entering the organization is important, one has to consider the exiting of the organization as being important as well. There are several generalizations about communication during the exit process:

• A process anticipated by either employer or employee


• Influences both who leave and those who stay


• Effects on families of those who leave the organization


• Communication from sources that may promote exits, and social support in helping to relieve stress of leaving.

This chapter is linked to chapter 3, as it talks about how an employee would socialize with his/her co-workers in the workplace, and how some people are told before and after leaving the organization. This would help the worker to integrate himself into the culture at the workplace, thus making him adapt quicker.

Reference:

Miller, K 2009, Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, 6^th edition, Belmont, CA, Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Unity of life in the workplace

This article explains three main points: social relationship, balancing work and private life and purpose of working. In this article, Dr. Michael Naughton says ‘a person should not refer to work and leisure as separate entities, but as integrated realities that are directed towards the uplift of people’s loves, especially of the underprivileged’. This allows the reducing of stress in the employees’ lives. By building social relationships with their fellow workers, supervisors, subordinates and customers, trust, cooperation, group work, communication and many problems can be resolved with relatively ease. This, indirectly helps to build a healthy organizational culture, and thus, improving the company as a whole. To Dr. Naughton, ‘purpose’ was the key to bringing everyone together, thus providing a better understanding of the tasks those groups were to complete. In relation to the textbook theories learnt under the chapter titled: Processes of emotion in the workplace, this article demonstrates a good example to the sub theory: Emotion as part of Workplace Relationships. This theory mentions that most organizational emotions arise from emotions that develop from relationships between workers in the workplace. With this article, it helps me in relating to the topic/question chosen for my assignment three essay, where it is about communication and leadership in an organization. This is because this article explains the importance of communication in the workplace among peers.

Reference:

Alvendia-Q, R 2011, Unity of life in the workplace, BusinessWorld online.com, online, viewed 8 September 2011, from http://www.bworldonline.com/content.php?section=Opinion&title=Unity-of-life-in-the-workplace&id=37505

Chapter 6 : Critical Approaches

Summary from Textbook:

Some of the previous approaches contain underlying common threads. The first one is the ‘political’ frame of reference used to understand the organization. This ‘political’ frame is further divided into 3 frames of references: Unitary where emphasis is placed on common organizational goals, Pluralist, where the organization consists of many groups with divergent interests, and Radical, where the organization is viewed ‘as a battleground between rival forces, for the achievement of largely incompatible ends’. The second thread involves approaching organizational life, where the role of the theorist is to understand or explain organizational communications.

Theorists have started to take the critical approach, rather than the social approach. They believe that certain societal structures and processes may lead to fundamental imbalances of power. These may lead to alienation and oppression for certain social classes and groups. The roles of these theorists, thus, are to explore and uncover such imbalances and to bring them to the attention of the oppressed group, leading them to freedom.

A critical theorist views power as being the most important. It is typically equated to the constructs of control and domination, which is central to all critical theories. In order to explore this concept, three approaches were utilized by most theorists: the traditional approach, the symbological approach/ interpretive approach, and the radical-critical approach. Two forms of control over power were analysed, being: control over modes and means of production, and control of organizational discourse. Even those restrictions that were meant to help the workers in time of need, were worded as such that when something went wrong, it would be the fault of the workers and not the fault of the company. An example would be the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

Critical theorists also argue that these processes will lead to a shaping of ideology and hegemony. Ideology refers to ‘the taken-for-granted assumptions about reality that influence perceptions of situations and events” whereas hegemony refers to a process in which a dominant group leads another group to accept subordination as the norm. The next step is then emancipation, or “the liberation of people from unnecessarily restrictive traditions, ideologies, assumptions, power relations, identity formations, and so forth, that inhibit or distort opportunities for autonomy, clarification of genuine needs and wants, and thus greater and lasting satisfaction”. It is also seen as a process of emerging awareness and communicative action on the part of the oppressed.

With emancipation, comes resistance. This concept discovers how workers can exert counter pressure on the exercise of power and control. It is usually seen in collective and organized processes; however theorists are more interested in seeing how resistance can be undertaken by an individual. However, it is not a straightforward and unproblematic process, but a pragmatic process that involves both acts of resistance and complicity in organizational systems of power.

There are two critical approaches in communication, the concertive control theory and the feminist theories. The concertive theory explains how power relationships can be transformed in team-based and alternative form organizations. Three main concepts help to understand this theory:

• Control- Simple control, technological control, bureaucratic control and concertive control


• Identification- the perception of oneness with or belongingness to a collective, where the individual defines him or herself in terms of the collective in which he or she is a member


• Discipline- to reward or punish behaviour that conforms with or deviates from the values identified as important by the work group.

Feminist theorists believe that females are being downplayed in the workplace due to tradition and stereotyping. There are several groups of feminist theorists: liberal feminists, radical feminists, standpoint feminists, postmodern feminists and pluralist feminists. Three studies are explored to provide a sampling of feminist scholarship in organizational communication: the framing of sexual harassment, discourse at a woman-owned business and disciplined bodies.

Through their scholarship, critical theorists attempt to show ‘how specific interests fail to be realized owing partly to the inability of people to understand or act on those interests. They also use quantitative data that show how resources are distributed in organizations and how individuals perceive their lives within organizations. Interpretive research techniques similar to those used by cultural scholars are the most commonly used techniques.

I like this chapter as it shows that when people are oppressed, they may rise up and oppose their oppressors. However, I feel that it does not only apply to within an organization, but can also apply to the population and the Government in control.

Reference:

Miller, K 2009, Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, 6^th edition, Belmont, CA, Wadsworth Publishing Company.